By: Harry H. Schanker and Katharine Anne Ommanney
Publisher: Gleencoe McGraw-Hill
Part One: Interpreting the Drama
Chapter 1: Improvisation
· To improvise is to perform a scene or to portray a character without rehearsing or using a script. Improvisation emphasizes spontaneity, creativity, and imagination. It helps actors gain confidence and learn timing, a key aspect of executing lines and actions.
· The two basic approaches to improvised storytelling are the character-centered approach and the situation-centered approach. The character-centered approach focuses on a character or a group of characters that faces various situations. In the situation-centered approach, the focus is on the situation itself.
· A beginning actor can improvise successfully by learning some basic techniques. Through a motivated sequence, an actor mirrors people’s natural responses to internal or external stimuli. Characterization involves visualizing a character in detail in order to bring that character to life for the audience.
· Improvisation may be performed by a group or by an individual actor. Individual improvisation gives the actor room for greater personal imagination and more time to create deep characterization.
Vocabulary
1. Improvisation- the impromptu portrayal of a character or a scene without any rehearsal or preparation.
2. Spontaneity- spontaneity, credibility, and freshness in each performance are the goals of the director of a play, the challenge to the cast, and the pleasure of the audience.
3. “Illusion of the first time”- a situation in which an audience is led to believe that each performance is the first.
4. Scene-stealing- calling attention to one’s presence onstage and diverting attention away from the main actors.
5. Character-centered approach- an approach to telling a story that focuses on a character or a group of characters who experience different situations.
6. Situation-centered approach- an approach to telling a story that takes a single situation or a series of situations and puts characters in them to show how different personalities respond to the same event.
7. Motivated sequence- the natural way in which a person responds to a stimulus-the brain registers, the body responds and then reacts-as mirrored by an actor in an improvisation.
Chapter 2: Pantomime and Mime
· Pantomime is the art of acting without words, often called "the art of silence." This first form of acting is made up solely of nonverbal communication, including gestures, facial expressions, movement, and body language, and is critical to an actor's training.
· The techniques of pantomime are based on what humans do physically in response to emotional stimulation, other people, and the objects around them.
· Characterization in pantomime involves placing a character in a situation and showing that character's thoughts through nonverbal expression. An actor's posture and how an actor walks, sits, crosses, turns, and falls help define a character's personality.
· One of the major challenges in pantomime is placement, or the location of things. Many actors remember locations by kinesthesis, the neuromuscular awareness the body feels in a particular physical position. To execute a successful pantomime, an actor must assiduously plan and rehearse.
· Mime is an offspring of pantomime. While pantomime imitates physical action as it occurs in life, mime elucidates abstract ideas through illusory motions.
· A mime's main goal is to convey a theme, such as loneliness or forgiveness. Unlike actors employing the art of pantomime, mimes may use nonverbal sounds, such as escaping air or a telephone's busy signal. Also, mimes generally wear makeup to exaggerate their eyes and mouths.
· Mimes work with several conventional actions, such as the illusory walk, the rope pull, the ladder climb, and climbing up and down stairs. Everything in mime must be exaggerated. And each primary mime action is preceded by a preparatory action.
· There are three types of mime exercises: inclinations, rotations, and isolations (separations). An inclination is the bending of the body to the front, the side, or the rear. A rotation is the turning or pivoting of a body part, such as the head or chest. An isolation, the most challenging of the three exercises, separates parts of the body for individual development and expression.
Vocabulary
1. Pantomime- acting without words.
2. Nonverbal communication- communicating without words, using facial expressions, gestures, and body language.
3. Cross- to move from one position to another onstage.
4. Gesture- a movement of any part of the body to help express an idea.
5. Kinesthesis- sometimes called “muscle memory”; the neuromuscular sense the body has in a particular physical position.
6. Mime- an offspring of pantomime that conveys abstract ideas; also refers to the person performing a mime.
7. Inclination- the bending of the body to the front, the side, or the rear.
8. Rotation- turning or pivoting a body part in smooth circles.
9. Isolation- the process of separating parts of the body for individual development and expression.
Chapter 3: Voice and Diction
· Clear, correct speech and an expressive voice are essential tools for an actor. An actor can dramatically improve the expressiveness and effectiveness of his or her voice by practicing relaxation, good posture, and proper breathing.
· Vocal pitch, volume, rate, and quality help actors illustrate the emotion, mood, and personality of their characters. Pitch is the relative highness or lowness of a voice at any given time. Volume refers to the relative strength, force, or intensity with which sound is made. The speed at which words are spoken is called rate. And the individual sound of a particular voice is called its quality. Vocal quality depends upon resonance and the correct formation of vowel sounds. Resonance is the vibrant tone produced when sound waves strike the chambers of the throat, head, nose, and mouth. Nasality often occurs when vowel sounds are diverted from the oral cavity into the naval cavities, cutting down resonance and leaving the voice flat.
· Diction refers to the selection and pronunciation of words and their combinations in speech. Ear training and speech training help actors develop their diction by conquering the various vowel and consonant sounds.
· Vowels are especially important in interpretation because they can be lengthened, shortened, and inflected.
· Mastering pronunciation and diction allows actors to produce clear, audible voices so that an audience can wholly comprehend their words.
Vocabulary
1. Quality- the individual sound of a particular voice.
2. Resonance- the vibrant tone produced when sound waves strikes the chambers of the throat, head, nose, and mouth.
3. Nasality- the quality of sound produced through nasal passages.
4. Pitch- the relative highness or lowness of the voice.
5. Inflection- modulation, variety in pitch.
6. Monotone- an unvaried speaking tone; lack of inflection throughout a speech.
7. Volume- the strength, force, or intensity with which sound is made.
8. Rate- the speed at which words are spoken.
9. Diction- the selection and pronunciation of words and their combinations in speech.
10. Schwa(ə)- a pronunciation symbol with the sound of “uh”, as in about; often the vowel sound in an unstressed syllable.
11. Voiceless- referring to consonants, such as p, t, and f, that do not cause vibration of the vocal folds when sounded.
12. Voiced- referring to consonants, such as b, d, and v, that cause vibration of the vocal folds when sounded.
13. Pronunciation- the manner of saying words using the correct sounds and placing the accents on the stressed syllables.
Chapter 4: Acting
· There are two major approaches to acting. The first is emotional or subjective acting, in which actors become their characters. The second approach is technical acting, in which actors base performance on technique. In this approach, an actor analyzes the play's structure and the personalities of the characters. Many actors borrow from both approaches.
· Russian actor and director Konstantin Stanislavski created “The Method” approach to acting. "The Method" advises actors to use their full powers of concentration to ask what they would do if the events in the play were actually happening and they were intimately involved in these events. Substitution defers from "The Method" because it requires summoning a personal experience similar to the character's experience in order to project an accurate emotional response.
· Characterization is the substance of acting and requires the actor to grasp the fundamental personality of a part. To understand and interpret a role faithfully, an actor must study the play closely, perhaps scoring the script—marking pauses, emphasis, and movement, among other elements. An actor might also develop a character sketch, or brief biography of the character.
· While developing and then playing a character, an actor must keep in mind that the audience will include visual, auditory, and kinesthetic people. Therefore, actors must incorporate voice, body movement, and gesture in their acting.
· Physical acting relies on body language, or nonverbal communication. For instance, an actor should develop a master gesture, a distinctive action that serves as a clue to the character's personality. The positions and grouping of actors on stage convey the spirit of a situation without any lines being spoken.
· The following are basic staging techniques: "sharing a scene," "giving a scene," "turning the scene in," and "taking yourself out of a scene." Furthermore, an actor's movements on stage, whether employing crosses or countercrosses, send messages to the audience.
· Your voice is one of the strongest instruments you have for creating a character. Pay attention to your pitch and inflections, and be sure to memorize your lines. Rehearsals, which are at the director's discretion, are crucial to the finished product. A strong play will feature enthusiastic cast members who bond, almost as if they were a team.
Vocabulary
1. Emotional or subjective acting- the playing of a role in such a way that the actor weeps, suffers, or struggles emotionally.
2. Technical or objective acting- use of learned skills of acting, movement, speech, and interpretation to create roles; no emotional response is used.
3. Leading roles- the main characters in a play.
4. Protagonist- the main character in a play.
5. Antagonist- the person or the force working against the protagonist in a play.
6. Supporting roles- those characters who act as contrasts to others; characters with whom other characters, usually the protagonist, are compared.
7. Straight parts- a role in which the actors and the character portrayed are similar in appearance and personality.
8. Character parts- role in which an actor portrays traits that differ from his or her own to produce a desired character.
9. Characterization- putting together all facets of a character to bring life and interest to that character.
10. Primary source- an individual whose posture, movement, habits, voice inflections, and mannerisms are observed in order to build character.
11. Secondary sources- books that help in developing characterization.
12. Body language- communication that uses gestures, posture, and facial expressions instead of words.
13. Master gesture- a distinctive action that is repeated and serves as a clue to a character’s personality, such as a peculiar laugh or walk.
14. Inflection- modulation, variety in pitch.
15. Subtext- the meaning “between the lines” that an actor must draw from the script.
16. Substitution- the use by an actor of a personal experience to relate to the experience of a character within a play.
17. Improvisation- the impromptu portrayal of a character or a scene without any rehearsal or preparation.
18. Paraphrasing- restating lines in one’s own words.
Part Two: A Treasury of Scenes and Monologues
Part Three: Appreciating the Drama
Chapter 5: The Structure of Drama
· A play has four narrative essentials: exposition, plot, characters, and theme. These four elements are communicated through the dialogue and action of a drama. The way the playwright arranges and presents these four narrative essentials is the structure of the play.
· The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) identified the basic principles of playwriting in his work Poetics. These principles were spectacle, or the visible part of a play; sound, or the audible part of a play; diction, or the language used in a play; character, or the person or people in a play; reasoning, or the way speech is used to present all aspects of a play, including the production of emotions; and plot, or the action and events of a play.
· Many of Aristotle's basic principles are found in today's traditional four-part dramatic structure: exposition, plot, characters, and than one theme. The exposition elucidates the literary setting for an audience, often subtly answering the why , where , when , and who of the play. The exposition ultimately sets the mood, or emotional feeling, of the play, though mood may change throughout the play. The plot is what happens during the play. It generally features the development and resolution of a major conflict. The characters are the people in the play. When a character speaks, it is called dialogue. Most plays have traditional characters, such as the protagonist, or main character, and the antagonist, or the protagonist's opposition. The theme is the main idea of the play. It can be directly stated or, as is more common, left up to the audience to discover, interpret, and explore. A moral, on the other hand, is a lesson or principle contained within a play or taught by a play. Many plays have no particular moral, but every play has one or more than one theme.
Vocabulary
1. Protagonist- the main character in a play.
2. Exposition- the information put before an audience that gives the where, when, why, and who facts of a play.
3. Atmosphere- the environment of the play created by staging and lighting.
4. Mood- the emotional feeling of a play.
5. Preliminary situation- a clearly defined explanation of events in the lives of the leading characters before the start of a play’s action.
6. Plot- the series of related events that take place in a play.
7. Antagonist- the person or the force working against the protagonist in a play.
8. Denouement- an element of plot that refers to the untangling and resolution of complications.
9. Soliloquy- a speech delivered by an actor alone onstage that reveals the character’s innermost thoughts.
10. Theme- the basic idea of a play.
11. Moral- the lesson or the principle contained within or taught by a play.
12. Dialogue- the lines of a play spoken by characters.
13. Action- that which happens onstage to hold the audience’s attention.
14. Situation- a problem or challenge a character or characters must face.
Chapter 6: Varieties of Drama
· The two most recognized styles of drama are tragedy and comedy. Generally tragedies end in catastrophe—often the death of the tragic character. Comedies are usually lighthearted, with clever dialogue and amusing characters who are involved in funny situations.
· Plays that have qualities of both comedy and tragedy are called tragicomedies. Plays that do not fit the definition of tragedy but are serious in nature are simple called dramas.
· Tragedies feature an inevitably doomed protagonist. The protagonist's struggle creates pathos, or feelings of pity and compassion, in the audience. When the protagonist finally falls or fails, the audience reaches a catharsis, or an emotional release.
· Comedies share the common goal of amusing the audience and generating laughs. The situations and characters in low comedy are usually exaggerated and outlandish, and often rely on physical antics. Farce, burlesque, and parody are forms of low comedy. Intellectual humor, clever lines, wordplay, and allusions constitute high comedy, which includes "comedy of manners" and satire. Both high and low comedies utilize a variety of the acknowledged seven common causes of laughter: exaggeration, incongruity, anticipation, ambiguity, recognition, protection, and relief.
· Many plays do not fit neatly into either the tragedy or comedy category; for example, melodramas, plays of ideas, and fantasies often mix pathos and humor. The term style refers to the way in which a play is written, produced, and acted. Style relies on theatrical conventions, such as setting, to convey a particular interpretation. Most plays are representational, performed as if the audience were watching through a "fourth wall." However, some plays are presentational and acknowledge the audience's presence. Avant-garde plays use new and experimental techniques. Theater styles born in the 20th century include constructivism, theater of the absurd, and total theater.
· The most enduring description of tragedy is found in the Poetics by Aristotle. According to Aristotle, the tragic protagonist is an average or better person who, during the course of the play, is brought from happiness to misery. Through this suffering, the protagonist usually acquires a sense of awareness—of truth, of self, or of self, or of others. At the same time, the protagonist becomes alienated and isolated from society.
Vocabulary
1. Tragedy- a play in which the protagonist fails to achieve desired goals or is overcome by opposing forces.
2. Pathos- an element in drama that arouses feelings of pity and compassion in an audience.
3. Hamartia- an error in judgment or a shortcoming on the part of a tragic protagonist.
4. Catharsis- the emotional release an audience feels after the downfall of a tragic character.
5. Comedy- a play that treats characters and situations in a humorous way and has a happy ending.
6. Low comedy- a type of comedy that is quite physical, sometimes vulgar, and highly exaggerated in style and performance.
7. Farce- a kind of comedy characterized by clowning, practical jokes, and improbable characters and situations.
8. Screen scene- farcical scenes in which some of the actors hide from the other actors onstage yet are still able to hear and comment on the onstage dialogue.
9. Aside- a line spoken directly to the audience.
10. Burlesque- a form of low comedy that mocks a broad topic.
11. Parody- a type of low comedy that mocks a certain work by imitating the author’s style for comic effect.
12. Caricature- an exaggeration of a certain feature of a character or a literary work.
13. High comedy- a type of comedy that includes comedy of manners and satire and that is characterized by clever liners, word plays, and allusions.
14. Comedy of manners- a play that shows the humorous traits of a particular segment of society, usually the upper class.
15. Satire- a style of comedy that presents humorous attacks on accepted conventions of society, holding up human vices and follies to ridicule.
16. Fantasy- a play that deals with unrealistic and fantastic characters.
17. Romantic comedy- a play that presents an idealized love affair; written in the style of romanticism.
18. Sentimental comedy- eighteenth-century genre that was a reaction to the immorality in Restoration drama; presents life as ideal.
19. Melodrama- originally considered serious plays, now usually plays based on romantic plots that have little regard for convincing motivation or detailed characterization and that have the primary goal of keeping an audience involved using any means.
20. Play of ideas- a play that deals with a social problem or ethical issue, sometimes presenting a solution.
21. Theatrical conventions- setting and other visual elements.
22. Representational- a play performed as is the audience is watching the action through an imaginary fourth wall.
23. Presentational- a play in which the audience is recognized as an audience and the play as a play; consequently, the actors may speak directly to the audience.
24. Allegory- a form of storytelling that teaches moral concepts by using symbolic characters, events, or objects.
Chapter 7: History of Drama
· The history of drama mirrors human history, dating back to the pantomimes of primitive hunters and the rhythmic chants of ancient storytellers. As civilizations developed, drama took different forms.
· Western drama began in Greece in the sixth century, when choruses called goat singers chanted the goat-song, or tragos, during sacrificial ceremonies honoring the Greek god Dionysus. These ceremonies evolved into dramatic contests, and then the contests became part of a theatrical festival. Greek tragedies involve conflicts that evolve from the clash between the will of the gods and the ambitions and desires of humanity. Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, who wrote in the fourth and fifth centuries B.C., are considered the greatest writers of Greek tragedy. Aristophanes and Meander are considered great Greek comedic playwrights. Roman drama largely imitated Greek drama. Plautus and Terence were two notable writers of Roman comedy. Seneca was Rome's most famous tragedian.
· Medieval drama was heavily didactic and religious in form. Saint and Mystery plays became popular forms of Christian drama performed in churches. Saint plays are based on legends of saints. Mystery plays are based on biblical history. The Passion Play addresses the last week of Christ's life. Secular dramas called folk dramas developed simultaneously with the liturgical dramas. Folk dramas began in twelfth-century England and were performed outside during planting or harvest time. By the fifteenth century, the Catholic Church was presenting Morality plays, which teach the difference between right and wrong in the context of the devil and God battling for souls. Secular presentations of Moral Interludes were shorter than Morality plays and included more humorous characters and incidents.
· Great developments in stage equipment and sets occurred during the Renaissance, or rebirth. Also, opera and commedia dell'arte were first performed in Italy during this time. Professional troupes specializing in comic improvisations performed commedia dell'arte, or comic scenarios often using stock characters. Theater flourished in other parts of Europe, such as France and Spain, producing important playwrights such as Cervantes and Molière. The climax of Renaissance drama came from England during the Elizabethan Age, when Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and William Shakespeare produced works that have never lost their appeal. After the Elizabethan Age, drama declined in England. All theater was banned for eighteen years until the Restoration in 1660. Plays written by William Wycherley and William Congreve during the Restoration are still performed today. Drama began to flourish in much of Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when playwrights such as Goethe in Germany and Bernard Shaw of Ireland explored new ideas through theater.
· Chinese drama, which dates to A.D. 200, began with rituals that combined song, dance, gestures, and costumes. Peking Opera developed early in the nineteenth century and incorporates aspects of historical drama, spoken drama, song drama, dance drama, and ballet. Three forms of drama are uniquely Japanese: No, Bunraku, and Kabuki. Actor Zeami Motokiyo created No in the fourteenth century to be performed for nobility. No rhythmically coordinates words, dance, and music to the events of a story, which is often taken from classical Japanese literature. Bunraku, developed in the late 1600s, uses puppets, chanting, and music in its performances. In the seventeenth century, Kabuki developed as a form of entertainment for the general population. It borrows from many Japanese drama styles, including Noand Bunraku.
· Although American theater began as an imitation of British theater, the United States eventually became a home for innovative theater and playwrights such as Lorraine Hansberry and Eugene O'Neill. During the twentieth century, American playwrights wrote in earnest about problems of American society and began to reflect the diverse cultures of Americans.
Vocabulary
1. Trilogy- a set of three related plays.
2. Closet dramas- a play meant to be read rather than acted.
3. Saint plays- a religious play based on the lives and legends of saints.
4. Mystery plays- a form of religious drama based on biblical history.
5. Passion Play- a play concerned with the last week in the life of Christ.
6. Mansions- a series of acting stations that represented biblical settings; the Saint plays and Mystery plays were performed with mansions.
7. Cycle- a series of short plays depicting religious history from creation through doomsday, performed by medieval guilds in the late fourteenth century.
8. Folk drama- plays originating during the Middle Ages that were presented outdoors during planting time, harvest time, and other secular holidays.
9. Morality play- a play dealing with right and wrong, usually in the form of an allegory.
10. Moral Interludes- a short version of a Morality play that usually includes more humorous incidents.
11. Commedia dell’arte- professional improvised comedy that developed in Italy during the Renaissance.
12. Raked- stage inclines from the area closest to the audience upward to the rear of the satge.
13. Peking Opera- a form of Chinese drama that originated in the nineteenth century.
14. No (Noh)- a six-hundred-year-old Japanese form of drama employing standard characters, simple plots, and intricate language; the oldest form of drama to be preserved in its exact form; also called Noh.
15. Bunraku- Japanese drama that features wooden, elaborately costumed marionettes that are about four feet tall; also called Doll Theater.
16. Kabuki- Japanese drama from the seventeenth century that combines aspects of both No and Bunraku forms of drama.
Part Four: Producing the Drama
Chapter 8: Producing the Play
· The success of any play heavily depends upon a group of people who are never seen onstage, namely the production staff, which is composed of the artistic staff and the behind-the-scenes staff. The artistic staff includes the producer, who solicits or provides the financial backing and picks the director; the director, who does the casting, analyzes the play, develops a personal vision, and creates a promptbook; and the assistant director, who acts as the director's liaison with the cast and crew. The behind-the-scenes staff is made up of the stage manager, who is in charge of all cues and effects; the properties chief and his or her assistants, who are in charge of props; the business manager, who is in charge of the budget; the publicity manager, who handles promotion; and the house manager, who ensures the audience's comfort.
· A finished production requires a great deal of planning and rehearsing. During the planning period, the director starts a promptbook, which includes the entire play script and any plans. During the development period, the director also holds a series of auditions. Actors bring headshots and résumés to auditions, where they showcase their talents. After the play is cast, a series of rehearsals is held at the director's discretion—blocking rehearsals, working rehearsals, technical rehearsals, and polishing rehearsals, culminating in the final dress rehearsal before the first performance.
Vocabulary
1. Producer- the person who finds the financial investors, hires the director and production staff, sets the budget, and pays the bills for a theatrical production.
2. Director- the person in charge of molding all aspects of production—acting, scenery, costumes, makeup, lighting, and so on—into a unified whole.
3. Assistant director- the person who acts as the liaison between the director and the cast and crew and who takes charge of the rehearsal when the director is absent.
4. Prompter- the person who keeps the director’s promptbook and makes notes on cues, signals, and so on.
5. Scenic designer- responsible for settings, costumes, makeup, and lighting.
6. Technical director- a person who executes the designs of the scenic artist with the help of a crew.
7. Stage manager- the person who is completely in charge backstage during the rehearsals and performances.
8. Grip- a stagehand who moves scenery.
9. Properties chief- the person who is in charge of acquiring the props, storing them, arranging them on the set, preparing the prop table, and giving the actors the props they need.
10. Business manager- the person responsible for the financial arrangements of a production.
11. Publicity manager- the person who handles the advertising and promotion of a play in the press, on the radio, and in other media.
12. House manager- the person responsible for distribution of programs, seating of the audience, and training of the ushers.
13. Promptbook- a script marked with directions and cues for use by the prompter.
14. Audition- a tryout for a position in a play.
15. Reading rehearsal- a rehearsal at which the play is read by the director or by members of the cast.
16. Blocking rehearsal- a rehearsal at which the movement and groupings on the stage are practiced.
17. Working rehearsal- a rehearsal at which interpretation of the play is developed and words and actions are put together.
18. Polishing rehearsal- the final rehearsal at which all parts of the play are brought together so that flaws can be worked out.
19. Technical rehearsal- rehearsal at which lighting, scenery, and props are used so that changes go smoothly.
20. Dress rehearsal- an uninterrupted rehearsal with costumes and props; the final rehearsal before the first performance.
Chapter 9: Producing the Musical Play
· Opera, or "total music," originated in Italy as an attempt to recreate ancient Greek theater. Since then, many new types of musical theater have emerged, including the operetta, the comic opera, the musical revue, and the musical comedy. Oklahoma! is the production that introduced the musical play— a type of musical theater that emphasizes real characters and situations—to audiences desirous of more sophisticated musical theater.
· The musical play is more difficult to staff than a regular play. A musical play generally needs an instrumental director, a vocal director, and a choreographer in addition to a play director, a costumer, a business manager, a technical director, and a publicity director. The director must understand the structure of the play and the role music plays within that structure. Actors must be able to sing and dance as well as act. The director must remind the cast of certain important principles for performing a musical play, including stressing the first beat of each measure, singing "through the eyes," and playing in a state of action. Everyone needs to know the difference between rhythmic and melodic numbers and play them accordingly.
· Musical plays can also be complex to stage. They usually have many scenes so that some scenes must be played in front of a drop, or a painted curtain. While scenery is switched, change music is played by the orchestra or combo. The orchestra pit and the stage must communicate effectively in order to keep the cast and the musicians in sync. For this and many other reasons, musical theater demands extra rehearsal time and requires everyone involved in the production to work well as a team.
Vocabulary
1. Opera- a form of musical theater in which all conversations are sung.
2. Operetta- a form of musical theater in which the music is lighter than opera and conversation are spoken.
3. Comic opera- a humorous or satirical operetta.
4. Musical revue- a production consisting of a series of independent song-and-dance scenes tied loosely together; often satirical.
5. Musical comedy- a form of musical theater; a combination of operetta and musical revue; loosely connected production numbers.
6. Musical play- a form of religious drama based on biblical history.
7. Crossover- a term that describes characters walking across the stage together or entering from opposite sides and meeting on the stage.
8. Change music- the music played between scenes while sets are being changed.
9. Spoof- a farcical literary work that pokes fun at certain subjects or time periods.
10. Satire- a style of comedy that presents humorous attacks on accepted conventions of society, holding up human vices and follies to ridicule.
11. Concept musical- a series of loosely connected scenes that focus on a theatrical concept.
12. Hanging plot- a listing of all the flying scenery and what is on each piece, prepared by the technical director or the stage manager.
13. Storage plot- a diagram showing how scenic units are to be stored in the wing areas during a show.
14. Backlighting- the use of lighting instruments above and behind performers to accent the performers and set them apart from the background.
15. Reversibles- a costume that is double-faced so that by reversing it the illusion of a different costume is created.
16. Coordinates- costumes that are separates, which are interchangeable, or sometimes reversible, such as ties, vests, and so on.
17. Combo- a small group of instrumentalists.
Chapter 10: Stage Settings
· In a production, the scenic designer is next to the director in importance. The set needs to bring the stage to life—creating time and setting and developing the mood, detail, and atmosphere of a play. Stage sets are as varied as plays and depend greatly on the stage type in use and the scenic designer's vision. Every stage set needs to be workable for the actors, viewable by the audience, solid, easily assembled, and able to be quickly struck, or removed. Selectivity, simplicity, and consistency are keys to creating effective stage designs.
· Traditional sets include the box set, consisting of two or three walls built of flats and often covered by a ceiling; the unit set, made up of several scenic units that can be moved about the stage, turned, and interchanged to create several settings; the permanent set, which remains the same throughout a play; and profile sets, sometimes called cut-down or minimum sets. A thrust stage is a low platform stage that projects into the audience. The most effective set for this type of stage is the multiple-plane set, or the floating-screen set; this technique employs single flats or narrow drops that are placed or hung at various depths parallel to the front of the stage to provide concealed entrances for actors and suggest a locale.
· Different colors create different emotional effects on an audience; therefore, the color scheme—including the shades, hues, and intensities used—should represent the theme and mood of the piece. While constructing the set, one needs to keep in mind shifting scenery, the types of fabric used, how the set will be lit, and any other problems that might arise along with their potential solutions. Review Chapter 10 for specific techniques and processes.
· Everyone involved with the production should understand all safety issues surrounding the set and should act accordingly. For example, know the location and operation of all fire extinguishers and fire alarms and always wear safety goggles when operating power equipment and floating flats.
Vocabulary
1. Box set- a two-wall or three-wall set representing an interior of a room, often covered by a ceiling.
2. Unit set- a basic stage setting from which several settings can be created.
3. Permanent set- a set that remains the same throughout a play, regardless of change of locale.
4. Screens- two-fold and three-fold flats used either as walls against a drapery background or to cover openings or furnishings when changing scenes.
5. Profile set- like the box set, forms the entire perimeter of the setting; can be constructed of screens; also called a cut-down set or minimum set.
6. Prisms or periaktoi- sets made up of three six-foot flats or two four-foot flats and one six-foot flat, shaped as equilateral or isosceles triangles mounted on a wheeled carriage that can be pivoted.
7. Curtain set- the use of curtains as a backdrop for a play.
8. Unity- a situation in which all elements of the set form a perfect whole, centering on the main idea of the play.
9. Emphasis- the focus of the audience’s attention on some part of the stage.
10. Proportion- a principle of stage design that uses the human being as the unit of measurement.
11. Balance- the visual symmetry of the stage.
12. Hue- the purity of color.
13. Value- the lightness or darkness of a color.
14. Tints- light or pastel colors.
15. Shades- dark or deep colors.
16. Intensity- the brightness or dimness of color or light.
17. Saturation- the brightness or dullness of a color.
Chapter 11: Lighting and Sound
· Lighting is perhaps the most important aspect of scenic design because it creates the mood and atmosphere of a production. In order to use lighting effectively, a good lighting technician considers the basic principles of lighting: intensity, color, and distribution.
· Intensity is the brightness or dimness of color or light: most lighting changes should happen gradually by dimming up or down or with a crossfade. The effect of light on color is difficult to predict accurately because of the relationship between light, pigments, and dyes. Costumes and makeup should be considered when preparing lighting because different color lights will affect the costume and makeup colors on stage differently. Distribute the most light to the most important acting area so that the actor playing in that area stands out. Lighting can also be used to create special effects in a production.
· The ideal lighting equipment for the school stage is flexible, efficient, and economical. Equipment's flexibility is determined by mobility, control, and multiple services.
· Lighting is planned using a cue sheet and a light plot. The light plot shows the location of each lighting instrument and the area or objects each illuminates. The cue sheet shows what changes are to take place: which controls, which instruments, and what setting to use and the length of time each change will take place. All lighting cues should be worked out in rehearsals.
· Sound is another important aspect of theater. A theater's acoustics, which determine the audibility of actors on stage, should always be considered by a sound technician when presenting a production. The two types of sound equipment include amplification equipment, like microphones and amplifiers, boosts volume; and, recording equipment, like a sound-effects board and compact disc player, adds music and sound effects.
· The sound technician needs to plan sound using a sound plot and a sound cue sheet. The sound plot shows the pieces of equipment and their settings for each sound in the show, including music, actors' dialogue, and sound effects. The sound cue sheet includes each sound effect, its cue number, the script page number, the name of the effect, the volume level, and the length in seconds of the effect.
· The sound technician should keep some general sound principles in mind when planning sound, such as: the human ear is the best judge of sound quality and volume; each night's show will be unique; the sound system should be equalized; the sound levels for mikes, monitors, and accessories should be determined before a performance; sound needs may vary for the same auditorium at different times of the year; duct tape should be used to secure all cables in traffic areas.
Vocabulary
1. Spotlight- a metal-encased lighting instrument that can be focused, having a lens and a mirror.
2. Dimmer- an electrical device that controls the amount of current flowing into a lighting instrument, thus increasing or decreasing the intensity of the light.
3. Light panel- a console from which the brightness of light is controlled.
4. Cable- heavily insulated wire for joining lighting instruments to electrical outlets or to a switchboard.
5. Connector- a device for joining cables to each other or to instruments.
6. Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight- a highly efficient lighting instrument with a reflector shaped like an ellipsoid.
7. Follow spot- a long-range, high-wattage (1,000 to 2,6000 watts) lighting instrument capable of picking up or following a person moving on the stage, with a beam strong enough to stand out against normal stage lighting; may be xenon, carbon arc, quartz, or incandescent type.
8. Floodlight- a high wattage (500 to 1,500 watts) lighting instrument with a metal shell open at one end, the inner surface of which is painted white, is polished metal, or has a mirror to reflect the nonfocused light; also called flood.
9. Fresnel- a spotlight featuring a Fresnel or stepped lens, which projects a clear, strong light with a soft edge.
10. Portable striplight- a light used for sidelighting, backing, entrance lighting, or cyclorama lighting requiring three circuits.
11. Roundels- a transparent color medium placed on striplights to produce different colors.
12. Gelatin- a transparent color medium placed on lighting instruments to produce different colors; also called gel.
13. Key light- the strong source of light aimed at an acting area.
14. Fill light- the light that fills shadows, aimed opposite a key light.
15. Sidelight- the placing of lighting instruments behind the tormentor position for facial modeling and costume accent.
16. Backlight- the use of lighting instruments above and behind performers to accent the performers and set them apart from the background.
17. Scrim- a drop made of fabric that seems almost opaque when lit from the front and semitransparent when lit from behind; also called gauze.
18. Light plot- a diagram showing the placement of the lighting instruments and plugging system and where the beams from all the lighting instruments fall.
19. Lighting cue sheet- the lighting technician’s guide for all dimmer readings and settings at act or scene openings and for all lighting changes; also called cue sheet.
20. Acoustics- theater’s qualities that determine the audibility and trueness of sound.
21. Microphone- a device that receives sound waves and changes them into electronic impulses thereby amplifying the voice; also called a mike.
22. Amplifier- a simple piece of sound equipment that receives a small sound signal from a microphone or other sound signal from a microphone or other source, increases the strength of the signal, and outputs it to a speaker or other destination.
23. Speakers- cone-shaped devices driven by electromagnets that convert electrical impulses into sound.
24. Tweeters- type of speaker cone that reproduces high-pitched sounds.
25. Midrange- type of speaker cone that reproduces sounds occurring in the middle range.
26. Woofers- type of speaker cone that reproduces low-pitched sounds.
27. Feedback- a frequent problem that occurs with the projection of sound; a loud, ear-piercing scream that happens when the amplified sound is fed back into the microphones that are picking up the original sound.
28. Intercom Systems- system separate from the general amplification system that allows communication between the stage manager and members of the stage crew.
29. Sound-effects board- sometimes called a bell board, consists of several appliances—a doorbell, a door chime, a buzzer, an old fashioned phone bell, and an electronic phone-tone maker—attached to a piece of plywood.
30. Sound plot- plot showing the pieces of equipment and their settings for each sound in the show.
31. Sound cue sheet- a chart that includes each sound effect, its cue number, the script page number, the name of the effect, the volume level, and the length in seconds of the effect.
Chapter 12: Costuming
· The costuming of a play must contribute to the overall meaning of the production. An actor's costume should display the personality, social status, and idiosyncrasies of his or her character. In addition, the costume should reflect the character's relationship to other characters and to the play itself. Color coding— matching characters by color or pattern—can provide subtle means of identifying members of the same family, the same group, or pairs of lovers.
· In the planning stages, the costume designer, or costumer, should meet with the director, scenic director, and technical director to discuss costumes that fit the time period, style, lighting, budget, and theme of the play. When designing the costumes for a production, the costumer must consider the following: the kind of action that will take place, the comfort of the actors, the ease with which a costume can be put on and taken off, the durability of the design and fabric, the historical period of the play, the total design of the production, and the director's conceptualization of the play.
· A costume plot should be created describing the colors, fabrics, and accessories for each design. A wardrobe manager keeps the costume plot and chooses responsible assistants, or dressers, for all dressing rooms. The costume designer should see test fabrics under stage lighting using swatches, or fabric samples. Later, the costumer will hold a costume parade in which actors wear the costumes under the lights before the final fitting. Actors should rehearse in costume until they feel comfortable, natural, and confident in the designs. Likewise, all accessories should be obtained as early as possible so that actors can use them during rehearsals.
· The costumer can acquire costumes by renting, borrowing, adapting, or making, or building. Renting may be expensive, but well-made costumes can enhance the performance; generally, costumers adapt thrift store clothing into costumes; and finally, making costumes offers many benefits for students, including seeing their own work on stage.
Vocabulary
1. Color coding- matching characters by color or pattern.
2. Swatch- a fabric sample.
3. Costume parade- a procession during which actors wear their costumes under the lights to ensure the compatibility of the colors.
4. Costume silhouette- each historic period’s own distinctive line and form in dress.
5. Costume plot- an outline that describes the colors, fabrics, and accessories for each costume design; kept by wardrobe manager.
6. Building- the term used by costumers for making a costume.
7. Wardrobe manager- the person responsible for creating the costume plot and for caring for costumes during rehearsals and performances.
8. Dressers- assistants who help actors with costumes and props; the final rehearsal before the first performance.
Chapter 13: Makeup
· Makeup is a useful tool for the actor. The bigger the auditorium or the more dramatic the production lighting, the more makeup is required. However, remember that too little is often better than too much.
· Straight makeup requires six steps: applying the foundation, or making the face into a blank mask; applying shadows and highlights—chiaroscuro—to bring out, change, or correct features; applying rouge and lipstick; applying eye and eyebrow makeup; powdering; and applying any finishing touches.
· Of all the makeup problems encountered by high school actors, the most difficult to handle effectively is aging. Remember that the key to all makeup is bone structure. There are two basic methods for applying wrinkles. The first assumes you have already applied the highlights and shadows. You then mark the wrinkles in the foundation by raising the brows, squinting the eyes, smiling, and pulling the chin in. The second method requires you to draw the wrinkles before applying the foundation.
· Hair is an integral part of both makeup and costume. Wigs, hairpieces, and falls should be fitted properly. For example, a bald wig must fit perfectly, and the blenders, or the edges of the wig where it meets the forehead and neck, must be cleverly concealed by makeup.
· Prosthetics and nose putty are two materials, among many, that actors use to alter facial features. Prosthetics are best made on a facial mask, or a plaster casting of the entire face including the closed eyes. You can then shape the desired prosthetic piece in clay on the facial mask. Then pour liquid latex into the clay mold and allow it to set. The latex piece is removed from the mold and is then ready to be attached to the face.
Vocabulary
1. Chiaroscuro- treatment of light and shade; the use of makeup to highlight and shadow the face.
2. Foundation- a base color in makeup.
3. Matte- flat or dull makeup that is achieved by powdering.
4. Highlighting- the term used for applying makeup to bring out facial features.
5. Shadowing- the term used for applying makeup to bring out, to change, or to correct facial features.
6. Blocked out- a natural facial feature obscured with neutral makeup; also planned or roughly sketched, as the movement during a scene.
7. Facial mask- those parts of the face that vibrate when a person hums; a plaster casting taken of the face.
8. Blender- the edge of a bald wig that must be made to blend with an actor’s skin.
9. Prosthetics-molded latex pieces of eyelids, cheeks, noses, and other features that are attached to the skin with additional latex.
Part Five: Adapting and Interpreting the Drama
Chapter 14: Theater and Other Media
· Early films are very similar to theatrical works performed in front of a camera; then, in 1915, D. W. Griffith used a variety of shots, light and shade composition, and film editing in creating The Birth of a Nation . From that point on, film could be distinguished from the stage in several ways. In film, real scenery could be used and actors played their roles in a less exaggerated, more real sense. Using dissolves and crosscut shots, film revolutionized the writer and director's ability to communicate time and space.
· Television was a breakthrough because it made entertainment cheaper, more accessible, and more convenient; it brought information, tragedy, and comedy directly into the audience's living room. At first, most television was shown live. However, with the development of the one-hour drama format, over time, leaps have been made in the tone and quality of many television programs.
· In all three mediums (television, film, and theater), the dramatic structure is similar: each requires exposition, conflict, and resolution. Criticism of these media can be broken up into two categories: reviews, which either recommend a piece or not; and analysis, which is a study of the theme or characterization of a piece. Success is sometimes measured by reviews, yet the success of a film is generally measured by its ticket sales. The success of a stage play may be evaluated using an outside firm to question the viewing audience. The success of a television series is measured by its ratings, or the number of people who watch the show.
Vocabulary
1. Animation- concept of making drawn or inanimate objects appear to live and move.
2. Live-action film- films in which the action is provided by living creatures.
3. Close-up- a hot taken at a very close distance, first used by famous director, D. W. Griffith.
4. Zoom- style of camera shot, using a zoom lens to shoot the subject from a distance that makes the subject appear to be very close; first used by famous director D. W. Griffith.
5. Dissolve- radical technique used by filmmakers that shows the passage of time by superimposing one camera shot over another as the first fades away.
6. Crosscut shot- technique used by filmmakers that switches abruptly from one scene to another to show events happening at the same time in different places.
7. Story idea- first stage in writing for film and television, usually expressed in a sentence or two.
8. The treatment- the second stage in writing for film and television which involves telling the story in narrative form without the use of dialogue.
9. Storyboard- the depiction of the script in comic-book form to help the filmmaker visualize the screenplay; was first developed by Webb Smith of the Walt Disney Studio.
10. Film editing- involves choosing and sequencing the various pieces of film so that the story is coherent; done by the editor in conjunction with the director of a film.
11. Three-camera system- system used in most television shows in which the multiple use of cameras allows the director to switch from close-ups to wide-angle shots and to get various camera angles on the same actor during one take.
12. Criticism- review and analysis of drama.
13. Review- type of criticism with the primary function of recommending or not recommending a movie or television program to an audience.
14. Analysis- critique of a production that might include considering, describing, and evaluating various aspects such as theme, plot, dialogue, and characterization.
15. Receipts-the money earned from ticket sales of a movie or a play.
16. Rating- the process used to measure the success of commercial television in which television networks rely on outside firms to assess the size of the viewing audience.
Chapter 15: Theater and Other Art Forms
· Many art forms, including dance, music, and fine art, are combined in theatrical productions to support and enhance theme, mood, character, action, and setting and thereby enrich the experience of theater.
· Music can be fully expressed only through performance because it is an auditory means of communication. Melody, which includes tempo, rhythm, volume, key, and harmony, controls the mood of a musical piece; and lyrics help the listeners interpret the music. Music has existed as long as humans have existed; however, the ancient Greeks were the first to write down their music. Music has undergone many changes since then, and each era has had its own set of musical standards.
· Dance, too, is an ancient art form and has seen many mutations over time. Unlike music, dance is primarily a kinesthetic and visual medium. However, dance performances are usually accompanied by music, making a dance performance both a visual and auditory experience. Ballets, like Swan Lake , have plots with characters and action that the dancers must present to the audience. Out of classical ballet came many forms of modern dance. Modern-dance choreographers generally portray universal emotions, but in the twentieth century, they also added social commentary to their compositions.
· Fine art is a visual art form that expresses theme and mood through color, line, texture, shape, and form. Arts are also influenced by the various artistic movements throughout history. For example, in the mid-nineteenth century, artists became interested in accurately representing everyday life, or realism.
· Although all of these art forms exist separately, they also blend together at times. Theater incorporates fine art in its costuming and set design, music in its musical numbers and dance in its dance numbers. The combination of various mediums in theater is called synthesis. Also, all of the arts are affected directly by the period in which they are created—including the politics and philosophies of the time. For example, the romantic and realist movements flowed through fine art, drama, music, dance, and literature.
Vocabulary
1. Composer- a person who writes music.
2. Melody- main musical phrase expressing the general feeling of a composition.
3. Lyrics- the words to a song.
4. Troubadours- strolling musicians that set poems to popular melodies during the Gothic era.
5. Choreographer- a person who designed for a production.
6. Ballet- dance in which the dancers communicate a storyline or a mood to the audience.
7. Modern dance- form of dance that ignores structure in favor of communicating soul and emotion; founded by Isadora Duncan.
8. Tap dance- form of dance where the sound of shoes clicking against the dance floor produced rhythm and music.
9. Synthesis- a combination of elements to form a whole.
10. Performance art- a type of monodrama that combines many different elements of theater in a novel way.
11. Broadway musical- production that incorporates contemporary music to convey plot, character, mood, and setting.
12. Art director- person who determines the overall “look” of the play by working closely with the director and the makeup, costuming, and lighting designers to achieve the desired effect in a production.
13. Opera-buffa- incorporated dialogue and light music, appeared in Italy.
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